The Origins of Life Essay -- Science Scientific Essays Research

The Origins of Life Before any speculation toward the origin of biotic forms, what was present at the formation of the earth that could result in inorganic, then organic, and later biotic creatures? Early atmospheric conditions have been theorized to be present due to planetesimal collisions releasing gases present in the Earth, after the initial atmosphere of Hydrogen and Helium escaped Earth’s gravity assisted by heat energy. The earlier atmosphere is believed to have consisted mainly of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen (bonded to other elements) in such forms as CO2/CO, N2, and H20. Stanley Miller, through experimentation, shows that given an energy source like heat or electric charge it is possible to form reactions that create complex molecules, and through subsequent experiments nucleic acids like adenine were even formed. This is the premise for the â€Å"hot† theories of the origin of life. Given there are many derivative possibilities like process evolution, chemoauto trophic, and photoautotrophic origins, the basis is that given an energy source (heat) basic elements can form and break bonds to become increasingly complex. Given the theories have technically been progressing since 1922 and A.I. Oparin’s hypothesizing, the major strides have been in recent research. Through studies of volcanic activity, fossils, and archaebacteria, speculation leans heavily toward evidence provided by â€Å"hot† theory experiments. Given that it is quite plausible and possible that the early earth had the suggested â€Å"hot† environment providing heat and monomers that can combine to become polymers, the main step to come into question is, when did these polymers amount to life? â€Å"Life for Dummies† would suggest that life requi... ...dial Peptide Cycle†. Science 301 (15 August 2003): 938-940. Leman, Luke, Leslie Orgel, and M. Reza Ghadiri. â€Å"Carbonyl Sulfide – Mediated Prebiotic Formation of Peptides†. Science 306 (8 October 2004): 283-286. Luskin, Casey, and Reid Hankins. â€Å"Problems with Purely Natural Explanations for the Origins of Life on Earth†. Intelligent Design and Evolution Awareness Club 2001. 22 November 2004. . Szaflarski, Diane. â€Å"Possible Sites for the Origin of Life†. Cruising Chemistry. 22 November 2004. . Wachtershauser, Gunter. â€Å"Life as We Don’t Know It†. Science 289 (25 October 2000): 1307-1308. Zubay, Geoffrey. Origins of Life on the Earth and in the Cosmos. San Diego: Academic Press, 2000.

From Determinism to Cognitive Theory

From Deterministic Behaviorism to Cognitive Theory: An Evolutionary Trail Alesia G. McDaniel University of the Rockies Abstract The Behaviorist theory, introduced by Pavlov and popularized by Watson and Skinner is discussed based on its roots in the philosophy of determinism which maintains that all behavior is the result of a specific cause. The theory of evolution and the consequential nature-nurture debate following contributes to the search for the meaning of behavior. A relationship to present day behaviorism theory and the rise of cognitive behavioral theory with its branches of cognitive behavior therapy and neuroscience will be explored. An analysis of the similarities and differences between the two constructs in the field of psychology, leads to a discussion of how these theories are used in current psychological practice. Keywords: Determinism, Behaviorism, Cognitive Theory, Cognitive Behavioral Psychology From Determinism to Cognitive Theory: An Evolutionary Trail The history of psychology is informative. It began 100 years ago with an introspective search for mind (Skinner, 1990) that came from philosophy and metaphysics. A philosophical principle called determinism appears to serve as a root for what later became behaviorism. This paper will outline an evolutionary trail. Beginning at the sea of determinism and crossing the plains of evolution, through the jungle of experimental psychology to find the path leading to the oasis of explanation of behaviorism where after a short rest, the trail winds around the curve of cognitive theory ending at a fork in the road. At this point, one path leads to current cognitive therapy practice and the other to current applications of behaviorism. The Sea of Determinism Determinism emerges as the explanation of a principle of physics called cause and effect which asserts that all behavior is the result of some cause (Bargh, 2000). Causation comes as a direct result of purpose or reason. No event is uncaused and all events are of necessity. Philosophy tends to use introspection to flesh out concepts of how the mind interacts with the body. Introspection was rejected by the experimental psychologists. The Plains of Evolution Behaviorism is the idea that all behavior can be traced to specific causes either environmental or reflexive. Thompson (1994) states that behavior of the organism as a whole is the product of three types of variation and selection and that natural selection is the first type. It is responsible for the evolution of the species and hence for species behavior. The Jungle of Experimental Psychology Watson attacked introspection in his behaviorist manifesto of 1913, and for that or other reasons, introspection was essentially abandoned (Bargh, 2000). Behaviorists came out of structuralism and functionalism as a protest of the mentalism that guided the careers of Wundt and Titchener. Experimental psychologists hoped to isolate compounds of images, feelings and sensations in a way that they could measure them and us the measurements to predict the cause of human behavior (Bargh, 2000). It was hoped that these elements could be organized into a type of table as is used in physics. The failure of experimental psychologists to isolate behavior in this manner gave rise to Behaviorist theory. An Oasis: Behaviorism Pavlov’s conditioned reflex formed the basis of Watson’s behaviorism (Thompson, 1994) B. F. Skinner and John Watson developed â€Å"nurture focused† determinism with in two models of behavioral conditioning (Bargh, 2000). B. F. Skinner is known for development of Operant Conditioning which differed from Watson’s version by addition of operation procedures in addition to the CS and the UCS in his S-R model. Operant conditioning addressed the causality of human behavior and as such involved specification of how stimuli, responses, reinforcers, and drive states are woven into relationships that change and sustain an organism’s behavior (Herrnstein, 1977). This method had some limitations that contributed to the rise of cognitive theory as the answer to the question of why humans behave as they do. This process lacked objectivity to sustain its vision and goals. Psychological study without consideration of internal process in unproductive. It is missing a significant variable. Behaviorism came about as a reaction to the subjectivity and unreliability of methods used in experimental psychology and strove to provide a mechanical account of human behavior (Bargh, 2000). It was based on the physiological concept of reflex as a result of external stimulation. The S-R unit was seen as the basic building block of human behavior with no theoretical base. There isn’t any empirical evidence to prove its actual existence. As long as the S-R units of the behaviorist experiments remained contained in labs and boxes, it proved successful, but when taken to higher level processes such as language and social interaction, the S-R unit was no longer plausible. It was thought that what was discovered in the lab with pigeons and rats was transferrable to human behavior outside the lab. The failure of behaviorism’s model to explain higher mental processes of language acquisition, social interaction, memory, and judgment led to cognitive theory to find the missing link (Bargh, 2000). The Curve of Cognitive Theory Behavioral theory exposed the rudimentary or first principles of human behavior from which cognitive therapy evolved. Behaviorism denied internal processing and focusing only on external stimuli leaves much to be desired. The behaviorist held to the idea that the mediating internal constructs and processes hinder achieving the results of the assumption that human behavior can be explained by nurture focused determinism (Bargh, 2000). An integration of cognitive and dynamic psychology to understand all processes that cause behavior is needed. Cognitive theory focuses on the internal processing of external events as the cause of behavior and as such relates to determinism. Perhaps behaviorism failed to completely answer the questions of causality of human behavior because it denied that consciousness plays a role, with consciousness, representing those processes that motivate behavior internally. Perception, interpretation, memory, judgment, evaluation, and goal pursuit all serve to cause behavior. Maybe behaviorists were trying to disprove religious teachings of their time and the belief that God or the Devil had something to do with behavior. They were not willing to deal with what they did not know how to measure. As cognitive science picked up where Behaviorism left off, psychology begins to unravel a process by which an understanding of how the internal processes of the human mind work in combination with individual differences in consciousness and how that influences and directs human behavior. The Fork in the Road: Cognitive Behavior Therapy and Current Behaviorism Applied Cognitive behavior theory and behaviorism theory translated to cognitive-behavioral therapy currently helps practitioners to flesh out the root causality of problematic behavior with their clients. An understanding of why we do, what we do or, what thinking leads to certain behaviors is crucial to eradication of self-destructive behavior as well as restoration and growth after experiencing trauma or victimization. Applications of these theories have contributed to advances in treatment of addiction and trauma. The practices of psychotherapy and medication therapy have also benefited from advances in this area. The End of the Trail? The trail began seeing behavior as the effect of a cause. It continues to evolve from the present path of thinking processes being the cause of behavior. Experimental psychology, behaviorism blazed new trails toward the manifest destiny that is the mind. As new trails are being blazed to understand how thought is related to behavior the evolution continues. . References Bargh, J. A. (2000). Beyond behaviorism: On the automaticity of higher mental processes. Psychological Bulletin,126(6), 925-945. doi:10. 1037/0033-2909. 126. 6. 925. Goodwin, C. (2008). A history of modern psychology, 3rd ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Herrnstein, R. J. (1977). The evolution of behaviorism. American Psychologist, 32(8), 593-603. doi:10. 1037/0003-066X. 32. 8. 593 Skinner, B. F. (1990). Can psychology be a science of mind? American Psychologist, 45(11), 1206-1210. doi:10. 1037/0003-066X. 45. 11. 1206 Thompson, R. F. (1994). Behaviorism and neuroscience. Psychological Review, 101(2), 259-265. doi:10. 1037/0033-295X. 101. 2. 259

John Locke s Views On Human Nature Essay - 811 Words

itself, only a single ruler or an absolute monarch had the power or omnipotent vision to sufficiently rule a civilization. Whereas Locke saw a civilization that can be ruled in a democracy and every individual had a say in how the civilization can be ruled. Moreover, Hobbes’ outlook on human nature was generally bleak, most of his ideas were derived from the basis that all humans were, in fact, evil and that given the opportunity, a person would act on his or her own behalf before tending to the needs of others. He saw society as a dog-eat-dog, every-man-for-himself type of world and only the power of one absolute ruler can tame the madness. Although there were some very visible distinctions between the two, there is one constant belief that both philosophers share and that is the acceptance of human rights. Both men observed that all men should have the same rights as one another but greatly differed on the extent to which they were perceived. Locke thought that a humans rights were inalienable and cannot be taken away and that it was the governing body’s job to protect the rights of everyone. Whereas Hobbes also accepted the idea of human rights, he contrasted Locke’s view by maintaining that person alleviates his rights to the government and the government provides protection in return there by creating somewhat of a social contract. The theory of social contract is basically a morally justified agreement made between people that can potentially build an organized aShow MoreRelatedJohn Locke And Plato s Views On Human Nature1339 Words   |  6 PagesHuman Nature Human nature or man’s behavior in nature is a widely discussed topic in philosophy. Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Plato are among some of the many philosophers that have covered this topic in detail. John Locke expressed a generous view of human behavior. He states, â€Å"All mankind†¦ Being all equal and independent no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions. â€Å"1 . This quote refers to human nature, which is heavily discussed by John Locke. Locke is not theRead MoreJohn Locke s Views On Human Nature1602 Words   |  7 Pages James Madison and John Locke each created similar but somewhat different ideas about human nature. Whereas John Locke put more hope in human nature, Madison looked down on it with more critical analysis. Locke’s argument may provide few important points in general, but it is Madison who ultimately explained why people work in the specific way we see today and produce the government we enjoy. 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Democracy By Thomas Hobbes And John Locke1655 Words   |  7 Pages Monarchy vs Democracy Through assessing both monarchy and democracy from both perspectives of Thomas Hobbes and John Locke, one can see that democracy creates the most beneficial outcome. Hobbes had a pessimistic view of people. He believed humans were selfish, doing anything to further their own position in life. Hobbes believed in an absolute monarchy, a government that gave all the power to a king or queen. Even though he distrusted democracy, he believed that a diverse group of representativesRead MoreThe Social Contract Theories Of Thomas Hobbes And John Locke1210 Words   |  5 PagesMahogany Mills Professor: Dr. Arnold Political Philosophy 4 February 2015 Compare and contrast the social contract theories of Thomas Hobbes and John Locke In the beginning of time, there was no government to regulate man. This caused a burden on society and these hardships had to be conquered, which is when a social contract was developed. The social contract theory is a model that addresses the questions of the origin of society and the legitimacy of the authority of the state over an individualRead MoreConflicting Visions of Freedom in John Stuart Mill’s On Liberty and John Locke’s The Second Treatise of Government1275 Words   |  6 PagesJohn Stuart Mill’s On Liberty and John Locke’s The Second Treatise of Government are influential literary works while which outlining the theoretical framework of each thinkers optimal state propose two conflicting visions of the very essence of man and his freedom. Locke and Mill have completely different views when it comes to how much freedom man should have in political society because they have obtained different views about man’s potential of inheriting pur e or evil behavior. 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He believed that as long as they adhere to his rules, they remain valid. As a result of looking through Thomas Hobbes’ view on monarchy and John Locke’s view on democracy, both perspectives